Not far from the Essex town of Maldon in England is Northey Island. Today a peaceful spot for birdwatching and relaxation, the island is thought to identify the site of a celebrated battle between the Vikings and the English in 991.
The battle of Maldon - an epic poem
The battle of Maldon was fought in 991 between a Viking force under Olafr Tryggvason which had landed on Northey, and the forces of Essex led by Ealdorman Byrhtnoth.
In a manner typical of the time, the Vikings had sailed their ships up river and, occupying a defensible position (Northey), held it while demanding payment (the Danegeld) in return for sailing away.
Byrhtnoth had no intention of paying the raiders off. However, after initially refusing to let the Vikings come ashore along the causeway separating Northey from the mainland, he then changed his mind. This decision proved to be a costly mistake.
The resultant battle and its outcome are celebrated in an epic alliterative poem, written in Old English and widely seen as a commemoration of Maldon's English dead.
Initial exchanges
Þa stod on stæðe, stiðlice clypode
Wicinga ar, wordum mælde…
(Then, stood on the shore, the Viking herald called out stridently, and spoke words...) [ll.25-26]
So begins the section of the poem in which the Vikings insolently announce their demands. These are rejected by Byrhtnoth, who instead offers spears and swords as his 'payment' to buy off the Vikings; battle is inevitable. But why has the raid come about?
In showing Byrhtnoth already prepared for battle, the poem reveals that it was written in the context of a series of raids prior to the conflict which, history tells us, had previously resulted in the sackings of Folkestone, Sandwich and Ipswich.
At the beginning of the poem (albeit acephalous in missing its opening lines), Byrhtnoth's army is shown ready and prepared for what is to follow. He was clearly not surprised by the Vikings; instead, he may previously have shadowed them on shore as they made their way down the Blackwater (the Pant or Pantam stream in the poem [l. 68]).
Tide, causeway and fatal mistake
It is known from Viking raids in Nottinghamshire and Yorkshire that camps were set up next to rivers where vessels could be drawn safely to land; typically these would be on sloping ground.
At Northey Island, the ground is perfect for such a camp and, being surrounded at high tide by water, presents a relatively secure camp for a raiding force said by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle to comprise 93 ships.
In the poem, the island is shown cut off by the tides. As the poet writes, Ne mihte Þaer for wætere werod to Þam oðrum, Þaer com flowende flod æfter ebban… (because of the water, neither side might reach the other for there the sea flowed, flood after ebb) [ll. 64-5]. Such a description fits the causeway at Northey where high tides cover the causeway by some feet in depth.
However, according to the poem, Byrhtnoth seems unwilling to leave the Vikings on the island and instead invites battle on the shore. In so doing, as the poet says, he allows them to cross the causeway 'for his ofermode' - on account of his arrogance and self-belief.
Let battle commence
Such arrogance is a theme similarly commented upon by medieval alliterative poetry; what is 'ofermode' in Old English becomes 'surquedry' in Middle English.
Byrhtnoth seems to exhibit this in abundance, even to the extent of carelessly challenging God to decide the outcome for Himself:
"Nu eow is gerymed, gað ricene to us,
Guman to guÞe! God ana wat
Hwa Þære wælstow wealden mote."
(Now the way is cleared for you, come to us at once,
Men unto battle! God alone knows
Who may win control in this place of slaughter.) [ll. 93-5].
He does not ask for God's help but instead seems to take a nihilistic and reckless approach to who shall win the battle. And so the fierce enemy comes:
Woden Þa wælwulfas, for wætere ne murnon,
Wicinga werod west ofer Pantan
Ofer scir wæter scyldas wegon;
Lidmen to lande, linde bæron.
(Then the death-wolves came forth - they cared nought for water
The army of the Vikings - west over the Pant,
Over the glistening waters, bearing their shields;
Seafarers to land, bearing shields of lime wood) [ll. 96-99]
In describing the Vikings as "death wolves", the poet tells us even before we know the outcome that the outcome will not be a good one for Byrhtnoth. Ofermode in the face of God is not the trait of a winner.
In showing the Vikings as being fearless of water, they are shown almost as magical - able to walk on water, alive with wrathful fury. These are the devil's men.
The death of Byrhtnoth
In the ensuing battle, arrows fly, spears are flung and sword blows strike. The poet excels in his descriptive powers as we are told of brave men and their deeds.
Despite the valour of his men, Byrhtnoth is slain. Remarkably, however, he now becomes a martyr-like figure as, fatally struck down, he gazes upwards to heaven and calls to God. As the poet writes,
He to heofenum wlat ...
"GeÞance Þe, ðeoda Waldend,
Ealra Þæra wynna Þe ic on worulde gebad.
Nu ic ah, milde Metod, mæste Þearfe
Þaet Þu minum gaste godes geunne,
Þaet min sawul to de siðian mote
On Þin geweald, Þeoden engla,
Mide friÞe ferian, Ic eom frymdi to Þe
Þaet hi helsceaðan hynan ne moton!"
(Gazing heavenwards, he said, "I thank you, Lord of All, for all the gains I have had in this life. Now, dear Creator, I have the greatest need that You should favour and grant that my soul might travel to You and unto Your dominion, oh Lord of Angels, with peace on its journey. I entreat you that no enemies from hell should have it!") [ll. 172-180)
This passage marks the epic centre-point of the poem. It is almost as if Byrhtnoth has undergone a symbolic conversion and beatification amid a bloody conflict against the 'death-wolves', themselves symbolic of hell.
From being a warlike figure in the pantheon of Saxon heroes, he, like that other epic hero Beowulf, seems to transcend both the old pagan ways and the new of Christianity. He becomes an exemplar of self-sacrifice for the good of others; a messenger for those amongst the poem's audience who may still cling to the 'old ways' and traditions.
In this light, the death of Byrhtnoth at Maldon also seems appropriate. In Old English the name Maldon means 'crucifix hill'; it seems that Byrhtnoth himself, in being martyred here, has laid down his life for his men and his community.
The outcome of the battle
Following the death of their leader, the English are then subjected to a profound examination by the poet. It is as if the gauntlet is being laid down to those whose morality, loyalty and bravery is questionable. It is not permissible to be weak in the face of evil.
Here we learn of the flight of Godric who, in fleeing on Byrthnoth's horse, appears to mislead some of the English into thinking it is their own leader who has fled. His brothers Godwine and Godwig join him in flight, much to the contempt of the poet.
The poet himself reminds us that, just as today we have overblown political leaders who spout bravery but would run a mile from any battlefield, so too the braggards of his time. He exudes contempt for such vanity:
Swa him Offa on dæg ær asæde
On Þam meÞelstede Þa he gemot hæfde,
Þaet Þaer modelice manega spræcon
Þe eft æt Þærfe Þolian noldon.
(So earlier in the day, Offa had said
To them at the assembly when he had held a moot
That many had spoken bravely there
Who, afterwards, would not match words with deeds). [ll. 197-201]
The death of heroes
Just as in Beowulf, the notion of the mead-hall is the embodiment of clan and memory. If Godric, Godwine and Godwig have flown, others recognise fully their loyalty to their leader and to each other.
The poet writes movingly of the words of Aelfwine which, perhaps above all, invite us into the central thinking of Anglo-Saxon society:
"GemunaÞ Þa mæla, Þe we oft æt meodo spræcon
Þonne we on bence beot ahofon,
Hæleð on healle, ymbe heard gewinn.
Nu mæg cunnian hwa cene sy!"
(Remember those times when we often spoke at our mead;
Then we on the bench exclaimed aloft -
Heroes in the hall - about hard fighting.
Now we may discover who is really brave!) [ll. 212-215]
And so he and others remind themselves of Byrhtnoth, his generosity and what they owe him. The young and the old die together and, in their own way, render themselves immortal where now the seabirds gather and waters lap the marsh.
Prints used in this article
Both linocut prints used in this article are available to purchase in the Mythical Britain Online Shop. Each print is signed and edition by Michael Smith and is hand-produced on 19th century Albion press using oil-based permanent inks printed on 250gsm Somerset Velvet.
About the Author, Michael Smith
Michael Smith is a translator and illustrator of medieval literature. His books, including a translation of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, are available through all the usual outlets.
Signed copies
Signed and personally dedicated hardbound copies of the book, as well as limited copies of the book's original illustrations and other linocut prints are available directly from Mythical Britain.
More information about the Battle of Maldon
Although Northey Island is seen by many as the site of the battle, the archaeological record is less forthcoming. A detailed assessment of the poem, the site of the battle and contemporary and other sources, can be found here.
For a comprehensive report of the battlefield from English Heritage, please click here.
An accessible edition of the poem, including a literal and poetic translation, is provided by Bill Griffiths' The Battle of Maldon - Text and Translation (1991).
The Blackwater or River Pant
The etymology of the river Pant (the Blackwater) is of interest. Eilert Ekwall in his English River-Names (p. 319) tells us that the name, pronounced Pont, is 'apparently still applied to the river below Maldon.' He suggests the origin of the word is from the Welsh for valley and that 'the original name may have been a compound, perhaps a name of the same meaning as Blackwater'.
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